The Influence of Buddhist Culture on the Mongolian Epic Jangar

A Le Teng Gong Tenglong Gulixia.Akebaer

【Abstract】Epics belong to Oral folk literature， which is the basis of written literature or later writers literature， which in turn is the knowledge of humanities， or knowledge which reflects social life. In Jangar， some Mongolian historical cultural traces can be really found. Culture， in a broad sense， includes economics， politics， military affairs， literature and art as well as religion. This paper illustrates the Buddhist elements in the Mongolian heroic epic Jangar， and argues that as an important ideological component in the Mongolian society， Buddhism which has great influence on Mongolians life is reflected in the epic Jangar.

【Key words】Jangar; religion; Buddhism

1. Introduction

Jangar， a Mongol Heroic Epic， is rated as China's top three heroic epics along with King Gesar and Manas. It is a narrative poem presented in the form of singing and story telling， popular among the Mongolian ethnic group in China， especially in areas with a large population of Mongolians in Xinjiang. Jangar was orally created by the people from Mongolian Torghud Tribe probably in the 13th century and handed down until modern times by word of mouth. There wasn't a written text until the early 19th century. Benjamin Bergmann， A German traveler， collected the first Jangar at the beginning of the 19th century among the Kalmyks in Russia. Later， the epic was introduced to other parts of the country and foreign nations in Kalmyk， Todo and Mongolian texts etc.

About Kalmyks in Russia， according to The Secret History of the Mongols （A Mongolian Epic Chronicle of the Thirteenth Century） By IGOR DE RACHEWILTZ： “ The Oyirat （Oirat） are the historical ancestors of the Kalmucks （Kalmyks） ”. It is said that at the start of this 400-year era， the West Mongolian people （the Zunghar Mongols） designated themselves as D?rben Oirat （means “Alliance of Four”）. The alliance was comprised primarily of four major Western Mongolian tribes： Khoshut， Choros， Torghud and D?rbet. Later in the 17th century， perhaps due to reasons of  prosperity of both the population and the livestock， the Khoshut Mongolian tribe，under the leadership of Gushi Khan， moved to Tibet， Herleke led the Torghud Mongolian tribe to the lower Volga， and for a century and a half， until 1771， they lived both to the east and west of this region. During the course of the 18th century， they were absorbed by the Russian Empire， which was then expanding to the south and east. In 1771， those of the left bank， to the east of the Volga， returned to China. The right-bank Kalmyk， comprising the contemporary Torghud， Dorbet， and Buzawa， remained in Russia. People of the right bank were unable to move because the river did not freeze up that year. Some old people said so. The descendent of these people who returned now lives mainly in the northern part of Xinjiang. Hobugsair， so-called the cradle of Jangar， is also located in this region and it is also the hometown of many famous Jangar singers （Jangarchi）， like Juunai and Arimpil.

The epic Jangar contains valuable historical， cultural and ethnographical evidence on the life of the Mongols. So， besides being a literary monument， and it can also be regarded as a unique encyclopedia of the history of the social and spiritual development of the Mongolian peoples and their civilization. As a legend of nomadic Mongolian people， the epic Jangar shows us a vivid picture of the nomadic Mongolian way of life. Vast grasslands， limitless desert， galloping steeds， brave warriors， simple and honest herdsmen， mellow milk tea， inviting mutton， joyful dance and song， and enchanting melody… a rich， glorious， ethnically styled Mongol culture.

Religious evidence reflected in Jangar help one understand the religious life of the Mongolian people and their customs of life. In this paper， the legend of Jangar will be traced and the Buddhist elements which were reflected in Jangar can be found out.

2. Buddhist elements reflected in Jangar

As an important ideological component in the Mongol society， religions like Shamanism， Taoism and Buddhism are reflected differently in Jangar. Shamanism was the early faith of the Mongols. From the 1220s， Taoism circulated in Mobei， north of Gobi Desert， because of the emperors Genghis Khan and Kublais support and advocacy. Buddhism was a popular faith of the Mongols. In the following paragraphs Buddhist contents which appeared in the epic Jangar will be mainly illustrated.

In the prologue of Jangar from New Edition and Translation of Epic Jangar， it was written：

Line 59 Sage Jangar Khan was iron-cast， /With wisdom great and unsurpassed./Ochirbanis power he possessed，/It flowed from off his regal head. /And Mahakala incarnation /Gave Jangar Khan his inspiration...

Line65 With Master Zongkaba wise soul， /Jangars wisdom now was whole.

Zongkaba （the name mentioned by Jangarchi （the story tellers or singers） above） （also Tsongkhapa （1357–1419）， whose name means “The Man from Onion Valley”， was a famous teacher of Tibetan Buddhism whose activities led later to the formation of the Geluk school， the most famous Buddhist sect in Tibetan history dating back to the 15th century. The Gelug was famous for its strict adherence to commandments. The Tibetan language meaning of Gelug is “commandments.” Zongkaba and his followers wore yellow hats， and thus the Gelug Sect is also known as the Yellow Sect. The Yellow Sect is also known for formation of the two largest Living Buddha reincarnation systems-the Dalai and Bainqen systems. To the Mongols， Zongkaba is the incarnation of wisdom. The holiday Zul or Zula （Butter Lamp）， which takes place in the middle of winter on the 25th day of the month of Ukher （cow） （25th October in Chinese Lunar Calendar）， is dedicated to the passing away of the father of Lamaism， Bogdo Tsongkhapa. A thousand Zul（ Butter Lamp） are lit during the service. Zula festival is one of the major festivals celebrated by the Mongolians in Xinjiang. Jangar singer （jangarchi） sang that Jangar khan has Zongkabas （Tsongkhapa） wisdom， that means he has exceptional wisdom or great wisdom，in this way， the story-teller praised the great wisdom of both Zongkaba and Jangar khan

Ochirbani （vajradhara） is said to be the conqueror of the Mangus （Monsters）. The name is derived from Sanskrit， referring to a deity with a Buddhist pestle in the right hand and a Buddhist bell in the left hand. （See note 12 in the prologue of Jangar epic）

Mahakala （Mahagala） is one of the guardian warriors of Jade Emperor. The name is derived from Sanskrit， meaning a demon with three heads and six arms. （See note 13 in the prologue of Jangar epic）

Line 1.In the early days of the Golden Age /Buddhists preached and Jangar Khan， /The prominent sovereign sage， /Was born in Bumba – the holy land.

Golden Age： the original Mongolian words “Erdeni in eken chag” means “the Treasured Age”， i.e. “the Golden Age.” It was said that wherever the three thousand disciples of Sakyamuni preached Buddhism everywhere ， people did not bolt the doors at night nor take any articles left by the waysides， which is called “the Treasured Age” by Mongolians. （See the prologue of Jangar note 1）”

In this Jangar chapter， Jangarchi artistically and accurately used these Buddha or deities names which are well- known to the Mongols and to describe the exceptional wisdom （like that of Tsongkhapas）， amazing strength （like that of Ochirbanis）， and excellence in martial arts （like that of Mahakala） that Jangar khan had. We can find these Buddhas name and their deeds from the books or from the Internet nowadays， they are not just imaginary ones created by the epic singers and tellers.

There were more examples of this from Jangar chapter 3 “The Legend of Jangar， Buhairs Son. ” .It was written：

Line1It was a long， long time ago……/In that age was born Jangar Khan，/A great hero and outstanding man./His land was by the Shikir sea，/Sakyamuni as the Lord they took;

Line15 By Buyir Lake his tribe did lie，/Buddhist scripture their holy book…../Jangar went back to his court，/And of his fathers words he thought：/“Worship Amitabha you must 120 And in the Buddhist teachings trust.”/So once more took the scripture out/And in a clear voice read aloud./On page seventy-seven， written clear，/Was “Northwest far away from here，/125  Full eighty years ride away，/There lives Orne Morne Khan./His only daughter， Princess /Chagadai—Reincarnation of Sita Tara Holy Mother—/130  Will be your life partner.”

The following verses were about his distress after the death of his steed， and his prayer to Buddha.

Line227 Now Jangar Khan， facing toward /The wide Shiki Sea of His beautiful homeland， /Line230 Prayed to Sakyamuni to bless/ Him. Facing the sweet Buir Lake，/He told Bodhisattva his distress：/“I cannot move on northwest，/Im like an egg under an upset nest./Line235 To save my life or not，/Only you know what is what.”

Here the names like Sakyamuni， Amitabha Buddha，Sita Tara and Bodhisattva were appeared， then who were they？.

Jangarchi sang that “Sakyamuni—the lord that Jangars people took.”

Sakyamuni was the founder of Buddhism （565-485 BC）. According to Onon， Urgunge，The Secret History of the Mongols： The Life and Times of Chinggis Khan. Richmond， 2001. “Sakyamuni was born a prince around 500BC in what is now Nepal. Distressed by human suffering， he left his family， achieved enlightenment through meditation， and became the Buddha. According to his teachings， life is painful， the origin of pain is desire， the end of pain can be achieved by ending desire， and the way to this is through right living. This philosophy of ‘cause and effect （Karma） spread northwards into Tibet， where it absorbed the popular Bon religion and changed greatly in nature. The resulting synthesis， known as Lamaism， can be criticized as passive and fatalistic. Lamaism became popular among the Mongols during the reign of Qubilai Khan （1215-1294）.”

Abid Buddha （Amitabha Buddha， who presides over the Western Paradise and whose name is used as an incantation repeated by the faithful. —L.139） （See note 6 in chapter 2 of Jangar P125）， Sita Tara is one of Holy Mothers that Buddhists believe in， who delivers the multitude of people from misery， hence the name. —L.130） （See note 9 in chapter 3 of Jangar P158）， Bodhisattva （Bodhisattva is a Sanskrit term which translates as： Bodhi [enlightenment] and sattva [being]. A Bodhisattva is motivated by pure compassion and love. Their goal is to achieve the highest level of being： that of a Buddha. And their purpose for becoming a Buddha is to help others. The Bodhisattva will undergo any type of suffering to help another sentient being， whether a tiny insect or a huge mammal. In Shakyamuni Buddhas 'Perfection of Wisdom in 8，000 Lines' it states：“I will become a savior to all those beings， I will release them from all their sufferings.”

Santideva， the 8th-century Bodhisattva wrote a book entitled 'Bodhisattvacharyavatara，' which is one of the most important texts that students of Tibetan Buddhism study. The title has been translated into 'A Guide to the Bodhisattva Way of Life' and is written in verse form. In chapter 10， verse 55 the entire essence of the meaning of Bodhisattva is beautifully expressed：

“For as long as space endures

And for as long as living beings remain，

Until then may I too abide

To dispel the misery of the world.”

Maybe thats the reason why Jangar prayed to Sakyamuni to bless him and told his dilemma to Bodhisattva when he suffered， because he believed in the Buddhas words： “I will become a savior to all those beings， I will release them from all their sufferings.”

Any religious system makes a deep impression on the minds of people who believed in it. The three religious systems of Shamanism， Taoism and Buddhism that the Mongols believed in were reflected differently in Jangar. For example， in Mongol history， in ancient times， the shaman， priest of the Mongols， held positions of great honor in their society. They communed with the gods and the spirits of the dead， going into trances and speaking with the voices of the dead. Through this ritual they conducted the spirits of the deceased to the underworld. Before conducting any important business the khans would consult a shaman， who would speak to the gods and relay their messages to the khan. Because of their important position， the shamans gained great secular power.

This kind of phenomenon appears both in The Secret History of the Mongols and in the epic Jangar.

It was written in The Secret History of the Mongols and Other Pieces by Arthur Waley ChapterⅤ Struggle with the Shaman Teb-tenggeri： “ Monglik， of the Khongkhotan clan， had seven sons. The fourth was called KoKochu. The name under which he acted as a shaman was Teb-tenggeri…. Meanwhile Teb-tenggri came to Chingis and said， ‘The Spirit who carries messages for Eternal Heaven came to me and said， “For a time Temujin is to rule over the people， but he is said to be succeeded by Khasar ”. You had better get rid of Khasar， or one does not know what will happen！ When Chingis heard this， that very night he went and put Khasar under arrest. ”

In the epic Jangar， chapter 9 Loyal Lion Hongors Marriage to Alach Khans Daughter， Princess Altan Denjukei appeared in a scene similar to the one that happened right in Mongol history above： At a grand feast Jangar happened to think of loyal lion Hongor， who was then eighteen years old， the age to marry. So he sent the mighty Mongen Shigshirge to ask the opinion of Shara Lama （here the lamas role was just like that of the Shamans in Chingis times）， who was the leader of seventy thousand monks. Mongen Shigshirge asked， “Is it proper to give graceful Shara Nachin， daughter of the ferocious Dombu Khan， to Hongor as his wife？” Shara Lama answered， “Shara Nachin is the right woman for Hongor.” Then Jangar ordered Altan Cheji and Boro Mangnai to present wine to Dombu Khan as an engagement present. Altan Cheji tried to dissuade the king， saying， “I know that this woman is not virtuous. She does not deserve to be married to Hongor.” But Jangar did not listen to him. Then Altan Cheji had no choice but to set off with Boro Mangnai. The result turned out to be that the girl was not the right one for the hero Hongor. She was beautiful， however， she was wicked in her heart.

From the stories that Chinggis struggle with the shaman Teb-tenggeri in The Secret History of the Mongols or the story Loyal Lion Hongors Marriage to Alach Khans Daughter， Princess Altan Denjukei from the epic Jangar， we could also see the “rebellious” sides of the Mongol people. They may believe in a certain religion， but they never stop their steps to seek the truth. According to Chinggis， anyone， whoever he is， a common herdsman or a shaman， who delivers Gods words， and does not do what God likes will perish in the end. The Eternal Heaven （God） will punish those wicked without mercy. “Cf. Chingis Khans words： ‘he （Teb Tenggerr） （the shaman） was no longer loved by Heaven and his life （ami-yan）， together with his body （beye selte）， has been taken away. In other words， Heaven was so displeased with Teb Tenggeri that it not only caused his demise， but also bodily removed him from the scene so that nothing of him was left behind. ” （See Page 886 Note246 The Secret History of the Mongols—A Mongolian Epic Chronicle of the Thirteenth Century By IGOR DE RACHEWILTZ Volume two.） And see also The Secret History of the Mongols and Other Pieces by Arthur Waley ChapterⅤ Struggle with the shaman Teb-tengger： “Chingis said， ‘Teb-tenggri flogged my younger brothers and slandered them without cause. That is why Heaven did not love him， but took him away body and all.”

3. Conclusion

The religious elements and their important influence on the life of the Mongols can be discovered more from the epic Jangar. Religion sometimes has a more powerful influence on human life than law does. The conversion of a nation to a certain religion means that its people will accept that religion's principles as a basis to their pattern of life. Through the conversion to Buddhism， it seemed that the Mongols gained hope for peace and a deep faith which could provide them with comfort. Both the nobility and the common people tried to follow the law that would lead them to the realm of the Buddha. They changed their attitudes and behavior， and worked for blessings. This psychological change brought peace and stability to Mongol society， but it also resulted in weakness and decline， as Onon argues in his book： “The resulting synthesis， known as Lamaism， can be criticized as passive and fatalistic.”

Since Jangar contains valuable historical， cultural and ethnographical evidence on the life of the Mongols. The epic is worth reading and studying.

References：

[1]http：//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelug

[2]http：//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsongkhapa.

[3]http：//www.tibet-tour.com/tibet/buddhist-sects-and-characteristics.html.

[4]http：//www.tibet-tour.com/tibet/buddhist-sects-and-characteristics.html.

[5]http：//www.essortment.com/all/whatisbodhisat_rfld.htm.

[6]The Secret History of the Mongols—A Mongolian Epic Chronicle of the Thirteenth Century By IGOR DE RACHEWILTZ Volume two.

[7]The Secret History of the Mongols and Other Pieces by Arthur Waley ChapterⅤ.

[8]Jangar（New Edition and Translation of Epic Jangar）By T.Jamcha.