宋韵:登峰造极的两宋文明(六)

2021-08-04 13:02徐吉军
文化交流 2021年6期
关键词:舞蹈

徐吉军

(续上期)

八是辉煌的文化成就

宋代在哲学、史学、文学、书画艺术、音乐、舞蹈、戏曲以及科学技术等领域都达到了前所未有的高度,在各个领域都涌现了一批杰出的人物,在中国文化史上占有十分重要的地位。它以丰厚的底蕴、深邃的思想、恢宏的气势、绚丽的色彩,把中国历史悠久的民族文化推向高峰,并给此后中国文化的发展带来极其深远而重大的影响。正如明人徐有贞所说的:“宋有天下三百载,视汉唐疆域之广不及,而人才之盛过之。”王国维也说:“天水一朝人智之活动,与文化之多方面,前之汉、唐,后之元、明,势所不逮也。”

文学是文化的重要组成部分。在宋代,中国文学繁荣昌盛,诗词、散文、话本等都有突出的成就。郑振铎在《插图本中国文学史》中论述中国“中世文学”时,充满激情地写道:“欧洲文学史上的中世纪,是一个黑暗的时代,但我们的中世纪,却是那样的辉煌绚烂的一个大时代,几乎没有一纪一年不是天朗气清的‘佳日。”宋代无论是作家的人数、作品的数量,都明显超过唐代。至于文学流派之活跃、文学社团活动之频繁、文学生态结构之均衡、文学批评理论之兴盛,都有不容忽视的上佳呈现。

词作为一种可以演唱的文学形式,兴起于唐代,经五代至宋,达到了全盛,成为宋代文学的代表。作家、作品数量巨大,唐圭璋《全宋词》共收词人1494家,词21055首,涌现出柳永、张先、周邦彦、晏殊、欧阳修、苏轼、黄庭坚、秦观、李清照、朱淑真、辛棄疾、陆游、张孝祥、陈亮、朱敦儒、张元干等一大批艺术成就卓著的优秀词人。他们在词坛开拓创新,内容丰富,形式活泼,格调清新,或慷慨悲壮,或清丽典雅;或旷达豪放,或凄婉沉郁;或激越奔放,或妩媚缠绵,突破了传统的观念,广泛而深刻地反映了当时社会各阶层的生活和思想,具有鲜明的时代性、强烈的人民性和丰富多采的娱乐性。词人们怀着炽热的爱国激情,慷慨悲歌,写下了大量豪迈奔放、气势磅礴的忧时爱国的作品,特别是在南宋词坛,更是呈现出强烈的抗金气氛和爱国主义精神。岳飞的《满江红·怒发冲冠》、辛弃疾的《破阵子·醉里挑灯看剑》等,几百年来一直激励着中华民族不屈不挠地英勇斗争。后人对传承了中国传统文化载体、且在一定程度上代表了当时民族精神的宋词推崇备至,周笃文先生在《宋词》一书中说:“在三百余年的两宋文坛上,最为成功,最有创造性,最蔚然成风气,也最能表现人们真实感情生活的,就莫过于词了。词至宋代,真如娇花放蕊、丽日中天,充满了无穷的活力和光彩。”而自古以来所谓的“楚辞、汉赋、唐诗、宋词、元曲”之说,更成为千古之定论。

诗歌经唐代极盛之后,到宋朝则别开生面,有了很大的发展。如从诗人和作品来说,可谓盛况空前。北京大学古文献研究所《全宋诗》编纂委员会历数年之艰辛,编成约4000万字的《全宋诗》,洋洋洒洒50册,收录作者9000余人,约为《全唐诗》的4倍,卷数和字数约为《全唐诗》的5倍。如就个人的诗作数量来看,像陆游、杨万里这样的大诗人,各人所作的诗篇均在万首左右,可谓前无古人。再就宋诗的内容而言,更加广泛而深刻,表达技巧精细,思想缜密,更趋于散文化、议论化,形成了其独特的风格。苏轼、黄庭坚、梅尧臣、杨万里、范成大、陆游等为宋代诗人的杰出代表,在中国诗坛上闪耀着光辉。其艺术价值并不逊色于唐诗,二者各领风骚数百年。钱钟书先生评价说:“(唐诗与宋诗)不仅朝代之别,乃体格性分之殊。”“唐诗多以丰神情韵见长,宋诗多以筋骨思理见胜。”正是宋代诗人的自我省觉,方能于唐诗之后独树一帜,自辟蹊径,自开户牖,以理入诗,产生了中国历史上最早的哲理诗,给人以“柳暗花明又一村”的感觉,从而使中国古代的诗歌宝库更加丰富多彩、绚丽多姿。

在古文运动中,宋人扮演了主要角色。后人所称的唐宋八大家,除唐代的韩愈、柳宗元外,宋代占有六家,即:欧阳修、王安石、苏洵、苏轼、苏辙、曾巩。以欧阳修为代表的宋代散文家,倡导文风改革。他们在与骈文的斗争中,一扫宋初浮靡空乏之弊,把散文创作推向一个新的高峰,使宋代古文的内容和技巧更加成熟,文章朴素自然,婉转流畅,从而对后世的散文创作产生了巨大的影响。

宋代的话本小说,在延续唐代话本的的基础上,比唐代话本内容更加丰富,读者对象更加广泛,出现了《三国志平话》《大宋宣和遗事》《大唐三藏取经诗话》《武王伐纣平话》等名作。从话本小说的内容方面来说,它生动地反映了广大市民阶层的文化生活和思想,扩大了小说反映生活的领域,标志着我国古代现实主义文学的成熟。从形式上说,它开辟了中国古代小说的新纪元,为元、明以后小说进入繁盛阶段奠定了坚实的基础,由此出现了《三国演义》《水浒传》《西游记》《封神榜》等名作。

宋代是中国史学最繁荣的时期,在隋唐的基础上有了进一步的发展。邓广铭先生说:“宋代史学的发展所达到的水平,在中国封建社会历史时期内也是最高的。”其突出标志,一是史官制度更为完善,史学名家辈出,史学体裁呈现出多样化的特色。宋代史官制度的庞大组织和丰富内容,是前朝所不能及的。朝廷先后设置相关机构,形成了一整套史官修史制度。史家辈出,知名的有司马光、欧阳修、范祖禹、刘恕、刘攽、李焘、李心传、郑樵、徐梦莘、袁枢、王应麟、熊克、陈傅良等。其时,“实事求是”观念已经深深植根于史家的头脑里,成为史家的共识,影响着他们的治史活动,其显著标志是忧患意识、经世意识、史评意识表现得非常明显。二是宋代史书体例趋于完备,体例上新意迭出,史学理论进一步发展和成熟。司马光主编的《资治通鉴》,是我国第一部编年体通史,是借鉴历史智慧的杰作。刘敞、欧阳修开创金石学,在史学领域中开辟了一个新的领域。朱熹所创纲目体,所著的《资治通鉴纲目》一书,为编年体体例的又一重大发展。袁枢《通鉴纪事本末》开创了史书纪事本末体的先河,对中国史学的发展产生了重要影响,是明清两代史家广为采用的史体。

作为史学分支的方志学,在宋代也得到了高度的发展。宋代方志上承史、汉之余绪,下为后世的方志编纂学打下了坚实的基础,具有继往开来的历史地位和作用。张国淦先生在 《中国古方志考·叙例》中指出:“方志之书,至赵宋而体例始备。举凡舆图、疆域、山川、名胜、建置、职官、赋税、物产、乡里、风俗、人物、方伎、金石、艺文、灾异,无不汇于一编”,而不像隋唐以前那样“多分别单行,各自为书”,门类只限于“地图、山川、风土、人物、物产数种”。修志成就也十分突出,如李宗谔等编《祥符州县图经》、乐史《太平寰宇记》、王存《元丰九域志》、欧阳忞《舆地广记》、祝穆《方舆胜览》、王象之《舆地纪胜》、宋敏求《长安志》、朱长文《吴郡图经续记》、潜说友《咸淳临安志》、范成大《吴郡志》等,都是著称于世的名作。

宋代官私所藏典籍,达到中国中古史的顶峰。这一时期,目录学繁荣,史目不仅数量上远超前代,而且开创了当代史志目录的先例,在中国古代目录学史上处于极其重要的地位。尤袤《遂初堂书目》、陈振孙《直斋书录解题》、晁公武《郡斋读书志》,为宋代私家目录的代表作。

宋代是中国绘画史上的鼎盛时期,标志着我国中古时期绘画高峰的出现。首先,从画家的人数来看,宋代画家多达千人左右,如《佩文斋书画谱》载有986人,《古今图书集成》“画部·名流列传”载有943人。而元末夏文彦《图绘宝鉴》及其补遗、续补,则载有宋代画家853人,就画家人数来说,几乎是唐五代总和的两倍多(唐192人,五代110人),元代的四倍多(元代190人)。这些画家遍及宋代社会的各个阶层,上至帝王公侯,下至娼优奴婢,旁及释道,反映了宋代绘画艺术的鼎盛。郑振铎先生在其主编的《宋人画册》一书前言中指出:“论述中国绘画史的,必当以宋这个光荣的时代为中心。”其时,绘画在内容上比唐代有了很大的发展,山水画、人物画、风俗画、花鸟画等都并盛于世,真可谓“群山竞秀,万壑争流,法备而艺精”了。

宋代的书法艺术,虽不及唐代之繁盛,也远远逊色于同时期的文学和绘画艺术,但就整体而言,“别有一番新的局面、新的意趣、新的成就”,开创了一代新风。它是继魏晋以后书法艺术的第二次自觉和再认识。帖学盛行是宋代书法昌盛的一个重要方面,尚意之风为其鲜明的时代特征。其间书法名家輩出,而成就最高者为北宋四大家——苏轼、黄庭坚、米芾和蔡襄。此外,宋徽宗赵佶独树一帜,亦堪称道。

在音乐艺术方面,宋代体现出远迈汉唐、自成一体的时代特征,教坊制度较唐代有了质的飞跃,发展中心由隋唐时期的宫廷内府和庙宇转向两宋时期的市井民间,由贵族转向平民,由单纯的礼仪性和娱乐性跻身于商品经济舞台,并呈现出勃兴之势。音乐雅俗兼备,甚至因俗变雅。其时,市民音乐勃兴,新音乐形式层出不穷,成为引领时代文化潮流的先锋。器乐合奏或独奏,成为宋代文人享受文化生活的重要组成部分。而这种转变,正是宋代音乐商业化、专业化、多样化、世俗化等时代特征的真实写照。

宋代是中国古代舞蹈史上继魏晋南北朝之后的第二个伟大转折。其队舞、大曲、雅乐、民间舞蹈等都体现出人多、群舞的性质。舞蹈技艺已经达到了新的高度,舞蹈动态和舞式非常繁杂,令人眼花缭乱。以宫廷舞蹈为例,出现了包括手、袖、眼神、身段、步态和舞蹈队形等九类六十三项动态舞式。史桂花《宋代舞蹈商业化发展探究》一文认为,宋代不仅“队舞”高度程式化、规范化,带来舞蹈艺术的高度成熟,而且这个时期的舞蹈以商业化来规范自身的发展。这种现象使得宫廷舞蹈越出了宫墙流入民间,与民间舞蹈相互吸收,取长补短,进一步融合,使统治阶级的审美趣味摆脱了贵族化倾向,向民间靠拢,使宋代舞蹈民间色彩更加浓烈,并呈现“雅俗通融”“雅俗共赏”的可喜局面。它开辟我国舞蹈娱乐的大众化、商业化以及职业化之先河,为后来元明清戏曲舞蹈的发展奠定了坚实的基础。

与音乐、歌舞一样,宋代杂技也是中国杂技史上一个重要的阶段,具有独特的地位。它在唐代吞刀吐水、绳上舞蹈、跳弄车轮、盘舞等节目基础上进一步发展,开始从宫廷重新回归民间,特别是市民文艺的兴起,更给杂技艺术注入了巨大的力量,从而带来了一次新的变革。表演惊险奇特,杂技节目有上竿、打筋头、踏跷、舞剑、踢磬、弄花鼓捶、踢墨笔、弄球子、教虫蚁及鱼、弄熊、烧烟火、放爆仗、火戏儿、水戏儿、壁上睡等杂手伎四五十种之多,满足了百姓的精神需要。

宋代戏剧十分兴盛,杂剧、傀儡戏、皮影戏以及与这些戏剧有关的诸宫调、唱赚、杂扮、小说、讲唱等歌舞百戏,与南戏竞演争胜,共同构成宋代戏剧的繁盛局面。其时的戏曲艺术,作为一种熔歌舞、讲唱、文学诸多因素于一炉的综合性艺术,体现出宋代戏曲音乐的最高成就,也成为中国近世戏曲文化的主流。这一时期,也是中国戏剧的生成期,我国最早成熟的戏曲“温州杂剧”,即于南宋之初或稍早前首先诞生于浙江温州,因唱南曲又名“南曲戏文”,简称“南戏”。其时,温州地区的“九山书会”根据《状元张协传》改编而成的《张协状元》,已经具有完整的故事情节、曲折起伏的戏剧矛盾、齐全的角色行当以及丰富的表演形式、较完整的表演结构等,这都是以前所无法比拟的,其专业性得到了大大的增强。因此,它标志着中国戏曲的真正形成。

(作者系浙江省社科院历史所所长。)

Cultural Splendor of the Song Dynasty (Ⅵ)

By Xu Jijun

“In its 300 years of history, Song was not as expansive as Han and Tang dynasties in territory, but it cultivated more talents than them,” observed Xu Youzhen (1407-1472), a Ming (1368-1644) statesman and poet. “In terms of talents and in various respects of culture, the Song dynasty is much superior to Han, Tang dynasties that went before it, and the Yuan and Ming dynasties that came after,” Wang Guowei (1877-1927), a preeminent modern historian and scholar, agreed with the assessment.

Whether in literature, historiography, painting, calligraphy, music, dance, drama or in philosophy, science and technology, and myriad other fields, Song dynasty (960-1279) reached unprecedented heights, each area boasting quite a number of outstanding figures, and bringing far-reaching and significant influence to the development of Chinese culture.

“For the Europeans,” wrote Zheng Zhenduo (1898-1958), a renowned scholar on Chinese literature, in his book An Illustrated History of Chinese History, “the Middle Ages were Dark Ages, but for the Chinese, the Middle Ages were an era of splendor.” In fact, both the number of writers and the number of literary works in the Song period far exceeded those of Tang (618-907), one of the greatest dynasties throughout Chinese history. Literary schools proliferated, literary societies mushroomed, and literary criticisms and theories thrived.

First sung by ordinary folks, Ci or Ci poetry, also known as lyric poetry or lyric songs, is a genre of Chinese verse with unequal length that was originally set to music. Following the classical Chinese poetry, Ci poetry was developed in the Tang dynasty. But it wasnt until the Song dynasty that it became the predominant literary form. In Quansongci (Complete Song Ci Poems), a total of 1,494 Ci poets and 21,055 Ci poems were documented. These Ci poems were not only innovative in form, but rich in content and fresh in style. During this period, two distinct and contrasting styles of Ci poetry developed, the Wanyue School (delicate restraint) and the Haofang School (heroic abandon). Of the Wanyue School, Liu Yong (987-1053), Yan Shu (991-1055), Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072) and Li Qingzhao (1084-1155), among others, are some of the best-known poets, while Xin Qiji (1140-1207), Lu You (1125-1210) and Yue Fei (1103-1142) are among the highly acclaimed Haofang poets. Now, when Ci poetry is spoken of, the appellation “Song Ci” is commonly used, which testifies to its peak development in the Song dynasty.

On the other hand, poetry in general, after reaching the zenith in the Tang dynasty, still witnessed significant progress in Song. With 72 volumes, the Quansongshi (Complete Song Poems), complied by the Center for Ancient Chinese Classics and Archives of Peking University over a dozen years, has recorded over 9,000 poets, about four times of the number of poets recorded in Quantangshi (Complete Tang Poems), and the total word count stands at 40 million, 12 times of that of Quantangshi. Indeed, poets such as Lu You and Yang Wanli (1127-1206) left behind more than 10,000 poems, which is unprecedented. In terms of genres, literary styles and artistic value, for many, it is hard to choose between Song poems, considered more philosophical, and Tang poems.

Not only in poetry, Song literati also played an important part in the Classical Prose Movement, a movement in the late Tang and Song that called for clarity and precision in prose writing rather than following the rigid pianwen or parallel prose style that had been popular since the Han dynasty. Of the Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song who were the principal proponents of the movement, six were from the Song dynasty, namely Ouyang Xiu, Wang Anshi (1021-1086), Su Xun (1009-1066), Su Shi (1037-1101), Su Zhe (1039-1112) and Zeng Gong (1019-1083). And building on the Tang chuanqi, fictional short stories in classical Chinese, authors during the Song developed huaben, stories or novellas written in the vernacular language, which laid a solid foundation for the flourishing of such classics as The Romance of the Three Kingdoms, the Outlaws of the Marsh, and the Journey to the West in the Yuan (1271-1368) and Ming (1368-1644) dynasties.

“Songs historiographical operation is among the most developed of the Chinese feudal societies,” remarked Deng Guangming (1907-1998), a leading Chinese historian on the Song dynasty. One of the major features is a more comprehensive official historiographical system. A complete set of official agencies was established and a large number of prominent historians, including Sima Guang (1019-1086) and Ouyang Xiu, emerged. They were innovative not only in theories—recording history in as objective a manner as possible became the consensus among the Song historians, but also in practice. One of the most popular books today, Zizhi Tongjian (or Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Governance), compiled by Sima Guang, was the first general history reference book written in a chronological order. Studies of local history or local gazetteers advanced significantly as well in Song, when an exhaustive system of rules and guidelines took shape, which encompassed an encyclopedic range of subject matters and were followed by later dynasties.

The Song dynasty excelled in other areas, too. It marked the golden age of Chinese painting. Various records put the number of “famous Song painters” at around 1,000, who came from all walks of life: emperors and princes, prostitutes and servants, Buddhist and Taoist monks, and many others. Different types of paintings, including landscape painting, figure painting, genre painting, flower and bird painting, were all popular, each as celebrated as another. Although calligraphy in Song pales in comparison to its literature and painting, it is still believed to “have carved a niche of its own, developed a charm of its own and attained some accomplishments of its own. ” Four masters of calligraphy of the Song dynasty, namely Su Shi, Huang Tingjian (1045-1105), Mi Fu (1051-1107), Cai Xiang (1012-1067) and Zhao Ji (1082-1135), Emperor Huizong of Song, are among the most acclaimed Chinese calligraphers of all time.

In music, dancing, opera and even acrobatics, unique achievements have been made during the Song dynasty. The focus of music and dancing shifted from the imperial court and temples to the general public. It greatly facilitated the development of not only folk music and folk dancing, but also opera, which relied heavily on music and dancing. Indeed, Nanxi (literally “southern theater”), the earliest form of Chinese opera, was born in Zhejiangs Wenzhou area during the early Southern Song period.

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